LEXICAL-SYNTACTICAL ANALYSIS

"Lexical-syntactical analysis is the study of the meaning of individual words (lexicology) and the way those words are combined (syntax) in order to determine more accurately the author's intended meaning"  (Virkler, p. 94).  Remember that, though words may have many meanings, they have only one given meaning in any particular context.  That meaning is derived from the author's intention or purpose.  It is not derived from some lexical source which gives a broad history of a word's usage; neither is it obtained by forcing a theology upon it.

--Obtain as many different translations as possible of a passage, or of the whole Bible!

--Obtain good concordance(s) and Bible dictionary(ies).

--Obtain as many different commentaries as possible on a given book.

1.  Identify the general literary form.

There are three general literary forms:  prose, poetry, and apocalyptic literature.  "Apocalyptic writing, found most obviously in the visionary passages of Daniel and Revelation, frequently contains words used symbolically.  (The intention of apocalyptic is on comforting and sustaining the righteous remnant [inserted from Virkler elsewhere].)  Prose and poetry use words in literal and figurative ways:  in prose the literal usage predominates; in poetry figurative language is used most often" (Virkler, p. 97).  Discerning between Hebrew poetry and prose is difficult for the non-Hebrew reader.

a)  Epistles

1)  Some are very personal and direct while others are more general and diadactic.

2)  In what section of the epistle is your text found:  salutation, general body, farewell?  Is in a special prayer or thanksgiving?

3)  Virtually all epistles were brought about by a special occasion.  What is it for your text?

b)  Gospels

1)  Remember that the gospel writers are passing on second and third hand information to the readers (distinct from epistles which are direct from author to recipient).  And the writers have personally selected what they want to say, what stories to include, etc., based upon some known oral foundational stories.

2)  These assemblies of happenings are not for the purpose of giving a historical survey.  Rather, they offer a personal presentation of Jesus, who He is, what He accomplished, what He means to the hearers.  And the authors each intend a specific goal for their hearers.

3)  Determine what the evangelist understood about what was said or what took place.

4)  Determine why he employed the section in such a manner.

5)  Identify the literary form of your passage.  Is it a saying or is it narrative?  Is it a miracle story?  Who is the formal subject?  Is it a saying?  What kind (apocalyptic, parable, similitude, wisdom?)?  Does it employ overstatement, analogy, irony, metaphor?

6)   Is your section of text related to another gospel?  How does this advance your understanding?

7)  Why is your text section in the gospel?  Why did the author include it?  What is his goal with this particular pericope?

8)  Why is this saying found here in the arrangement given?

c)  Acts

1)  Be sure to gain a good grasp of Luke's purpose.

2)  Determine what was actually happening to the church at the time of your text.  Who are the main characters, what are they doing and why?

3)  Determine what the text meant to the church then;  consider how it applies to the church today.  What is the point of the section with your text?  How does it fit into the fuller passage and complete work?

4)  Remember not to add to what has not been said or to overscrutinize by assuming that Luke used absolute precision.

d)  Revelation

1)  Remember that Revelation is a prime example of apocalyptic literature.  It has not been written to exactly and precisely give minute details.  Rather, it is a literary form filled with imagery and overstatement to convey its message.  Further, this work contains prophecy, which sometimes is hard to separate from the apocalyptic.

2)  If a special image is used, determine why it is used.  What is the background of it?  Is the image used elsewhere in scripture?  Is it connected?  (Do not assume so.)  Does John interpret the images?  Does the image refer to something general or something specific?

3)  See visions as a whole.  Gain the major message, not the details.

e)  OT -- Be sure to consider the literary from of your text and the book where it is found.  Is it a historical account?  Is it straight narrative, a report, a general biography, an auto-biography, a dream-vision account, a prophecy?

f)  Prophecy -- be aware that the style is usually figurative and symbolic.  Follow the action to its usual conclusion by God's sovereign intervention.  Analyze whether this passage is part of a progressive prediction, is capable of developmental fulfillment, or includes prophetic telescoping.

 

2.  What is the author's theme throughout the book?  How does the passage under consideration fit into that context?

The immediate context of the passage being studied generally goes far in revealing the author's intention.  One must understand the verse or paragraph within the context of the section, and chapter, and the book.  The passage under scrutiny must fit into the larger context; and, its usage in that context must be understood.  Does it support the argument?  Is it an anticipated objection?  Does it add to the preceding thoughts, which moves the reader/hearer to a particular conclusion?

Control from the context keeps the preacher or teacher from becoming aggressive in seeking his own meaning for the terms and syntax just because "it preaches better."  Much damage is done by those anxious to force "good preaching points" onto a text, by those attempting to make the text more colorful, or by those who desire to seem more erudite. . . .

 

3.  Consider the divisions (paragraphs and sentences) of the text.

Use modern translations that show sentence structure and paragraph divisions.  Use several different translations, because each major translation will offer some variation in paragraph structure.  This will show where there is agreement among scholars and where there may be some question regarding sentence and paragraph arrangement.

Keep in mind that the verse and chapter divisions were added only recently; and, very frequently they are inaccurate and misleading.  They serve as little more than place markers.  (Punctuation in the original language texts of the Bible was virtually unknown; and, paragraph structure was not indicated in any way.)  One must work to determine what the natural paragraph divisions should be.  Be sure that sentences are accurate and proper.  For example, trying to follow sentence and paragraph structure in the KJV is difficult, at best.  Good exegetical commentaries will assist you in this quest.  Different modern translations will also help.

Remember, generally, the first sentence of the paragraph can serve as a transition from one thought to another or as a statement which is to be considered in the following sentences.  Also, the last sentence within a paragraph can be used to bring the thought to a climax or conclusion.

 

4.  Determine the words used to connect paragraphs, sentences, or clauses within sentences.   How do these indicate the author's development of his message?

"Connecting words, including conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns, etc., often aid in following the author's progression of thought.  When a relative pronoun is used, it is important to ask, 'What is the noun being discussed?'  A 'therefore' often provides the connecting link between a theoretical argument and the practical applications of that argument" (Virkler, p. 98).

E.g. #1, "What, then, shall we say in response to this? If God is for us, who can be against us?" (Rom 8:31, NIV).  Paul's use of "then" makes it clear that he is about to sum the glorious truths he has been expounding (vss. 28-30, and the preceding) and come to his immediate point.  He does so in the following sentence: "If God is for us, who can be against us?"  In the verses which follow 31, Paul exults in this wonderful truth.

E.g. #2, "our God and Savior, Jesus Christ" (2 Peter 1:1, NASV)  Note the simple conjunction "and."  This little word indicates that the noun preceding it is equal to the noun succeeding it; that is, "our God" is on equal footing with "Savior," and both together are named "Jesus Christ."  Hence, one can see that Peter intends to say that Jesus is both our God and Savior.  Much theology is taught here by the small word "and."

 

5.  Investigate the meaning of the individual words.

Words have denotations (specific meanings) and connotations (additional implications, emotional and otherwise).  Also, words may have some popular and non-exact meanings which must be considered.  (A modern example: "Man, that is a bad hat!"  Looking up "bad" in a lexicon or dictionary will give you little help in discerning the meaning.  YOU MUST KNOW THE CONTEXT!  In this example, the context gives the word a meaning that is exactly opposite of the dictionary definition.) 

Further, remember that the individual word meaning will probably contribute  least to the understanding of a sentence, paragraph, chapter, and book.  Hence, word studies, though necessary, do not contribute as much to the exegesis of a passage as does the understanding of the sentence or the paragraph, in context.  Beware of those expositors who spend their time and attention on "what a word literally means."  No word can mean anything without a context.  That context then shapes the meaning of the word far more than the historical range of meanings attending a word throughout its usage history.

   a.  Identify the multiple meanings the original Greek or Hebrew word possessed in its history of usage (from concordances, lexica, dictionaries, etc.).  This will generally establish the range of meanings possible.  Investigate what the word could mean to the local specific society (including both author and audience).  From this broad range, consider what the author intended by the word.  It may be helpful to check other places where the author used the same word or idea.

   b.  Determine the single meaning intended by the author in a given context.  (A particular word cannot mean all the things a dictionary or lexicon may identify.  The context limits its local and specific meaning.)

1)  Look at definitions or explanatory phrases that the author may give.  E.g., 2 Tim. 3:16, 17 -- "Perfect" in vs. 17 (KJV) is explained by the following phrase "thoroughly furnished unto all good works."  "Perfect"  Heb. 5:14 (KJV) is explained by the sentence.

2)  The subject and predicate may mutually explain each other.  E.g., Matt. 5:13 -- The Greek word moranthei can mean "to act foolishly" or "to lose its preferred characteristic."  The context and the full sentence explains the true meaning.  Can salt act foolishly?

3)  Consider the presence of parallelism found in Hebrew poetry.  Three basic types:

      synonymous . . .  the second line repeats idea of first  line, Psalm 103:10.

      antithetic . . . the second line sharply contrasts first, Psalm 37:21

      synthetic . . . the second line adds to the thought of the first, Psalm 14:2.

            Recognizing this in poetry (Psalms, Proverbs, etc.) will help determine meaning.

4)  Determine whether the word is being used as a figure of speech.  If so, the "literal" meaning is not the true meaning intended by the author.  When Jesus said, "Upon this rock I will build my church," He was not indicating a stony flat upon which to erect a building.

5)  Study parallel passages, both by the same author and by others.  Make sure that it is a real parallel and not an assumed one.  Compare Ephesians 2:1-5 with Colossians 2:12,13 to gain an understanding of Paul's concept of being "dead" in one's natural state.  The gospels offer both parallel passages and seemingly parallel passages.

 

6.  Analyze the syntax to determine the structure and flow of the author's or speaker's thought(s) within the passage.

The study of syntax moves the focal point out to a larger scale.  Syntactical study generally includes the consideration of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.  One must not only study the meaning of individual words, he also must study the relationships of those words to other words in the sentence, the relationships of the sentences to the paragraph, and the relationships of the paragraphs to the writing as a whole.  Word meaning by itself adds very little to understanding the communication, if one does not further investigate how the words are used in connection to each other.  Again, context and the relationship of the words within that context regulate meaning. 

[At this point, let me say that the following procedure is offered with a view toward using an English text Bible.  The New American Standard (Updated) is the recommended translation to use for serious exegesis because it attempts to maintain the general "mechanical" structure of the original languages as much as possible and still be readable.  However, for full study of the Bible, one should purchase as many different translations as possible to compare different difficult passages.]

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