Around 6th Century AD

By Phil Newton

The Medieval period of church history begins in the late 5th and early 6th centuries and continues on to the time of the Middle Ages - around 1000 AD. To say that it was a time of conflict and topsy-turvy for the world would be understating it. In both political and religious realms, everything seemed to change.

To begin with, Rome lost its grandeur. The center of the Roman Empire had already shifted to Constantinople with Constantine robbing Rome of its art treasures to decorate his own capitol city. Power shifted to the East away from the former strength of the West. The Church's central focus was in Constantinople and in North Africa, particularly in Alexandria. The latter was the theological center and the former the political center of the church. In Constantinople, the church leaders plied their strength and jockeyed for positions with the emperor.

Officially, the Fall of Rome was in 410 AD at the hand of the Goths - technically the Visigoths who began their defeat of Rome at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 sweeping through the Balkans and finally taking the city in 410 -- though some historians might call it Rome's giving up rather than a fall since its strength had long faded. The time of the Barbarians had come and the culture of Rome was affected. Names of the Barbarians, like Vandals and Goths are still used to express barbaric behavior. The Visigoths were truly barbaric, with only 15 of their 34 kings dying of natural causes or in battle. The rest were murdered or deposed. Though they were Arian, the Visigoth King Recared (586-601) converted to the Nicene orthodoxy in a great assembly in Toledo (589 AD). This led to the demise of Arianism but only swelled the ranks of the outwardly religious. It was a time of injustice and inequalities fostered by legalism. Priests could marry only with the bishop's permission, and if he did not get permission he had to do penance and his wife would be sold as a slave. Jews were mistreated so that if  Jew married a Christian woman he had to either convert to Christianity or leave his wife and children. Christianity seemed to simply be a prop for the political aspirations of the empire with the religious leaders cooperating.

The Vandals made a 30 year swing across the Rhine River, controlling France and Spain along the way, then crossing the Straits of Gibraltar in 429 into North Africa. They captured Carthage in 439 and virtually mastered North Africa all the way to Egypt. Feeling their power, they mounted a sea campaigning against Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, islands of the Mediterranean, and then in 455, they sacked Rome, doing greater damage than the Goths had done a generation earlier. Since the Vandals were Arian in their theology, thus denying the Trinity and particularly the doctrine related to the Person of Christ, they found the catholic faith (or universal faith) to be abhorrent, and persecuted those that held to orthodox doctrine. A century later, as the eastern Roman Empire enjoyed a revival of strength under Emperor Justinian, General Belisarius of the Byzantine Empire conquered the Vandals, with the hope of returning the Roman Empire to its former glory. Though the Byzantines held to an orthodox view of the Trinity, they differed from the West in religious culture and practice, and so there was a lack of unity in the Empire, making them easy prey for the 7th century invasion by the Moslems.

In the 5th century, modern France was divided between the Burgundians (Arians) and the Franks (pagans). The Burgundians soon adopted the Nicene faith of their subjects. The Franks, for whom France was named, were made up of unruly, barbaric tribes that lacked unity. However, they found unity under the leadership of Clovis. He had married "a Christian Burgundian princess, and on the eve of a battle promised that he would be converted if his wife's God gave him victory. As a result, on Christmas Day, A.D. 496, he was baptized, along with a number of his nobles. Shortly thereafter, most of the Franks were baptized," according to Justo Gonzalez (The Story of Christianity, 234). It seems that the baptism of the ancient Franks resembles quite closely the baptism of many modern French in that it is the religious thing to do without real concern for conversion of Christ that affects one's behavior and morals. The ancient "Christian" rulers of the Franks thought nothing of seizing church property or installing their favorite bishops into office. Their violence also was evidenced by an occasion when after cutting the throats of their rivals they brought thank offerings to the shrine of St. Martin of Tours. By the 7th century almost the entire popular had "received baptism. But few people worked at their faith, communion was seldom taken, and little attention was paid to the clergy's sermons," so much so that Hilary of Arles "shouted at those leaving his service before the sermon that they would not get out of hell so easily" [Claus, Pierard, Yamauchi, Two Kingdoms 120-121].

A latter Frankish king, Charles Martel ("the Hammer"), led the Franks in defeating the Moslems in the Battle of Tours in 732. His fight was a decisive blow against the spread of Islam into Europe. His grandson would become the greatest ruler in the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne. During the reigns of Clovis and Charles Martel, it was common for the kings to decide who would serve as Bishop. Along with a bishopric came great land holdings. Bishops were synonymous with power and lordly authority, and they demonstrated this by wielding political authority but neglecting any kind of spiritual service.

While the continent of Europe endured changes, so did the British Isles, but in a different way. Great Britain was part of the Roman Empire but due to the distance from the heart of the empire, Britain was never under complete Roman control. Missionaries had already spread Christianity in various parts of the island with much success. So when the Angles and the Saxons conquered them, they still retained the faith they had learned under the Roman occupiers. The natives had an influence in future years on the pagan invaders.

Ireland was not part of the Roman Empire, yet Christianity spread there nonetheless through the work of a young man by the name of Patrick. He had earlier been captured in Britain by Irish raiders, serving as a slave in Ireland. After he escaped captivity he had a vision that called him to return to his captors to bring them the gospel. He had much success, founding numerous monasteries and baptizing many of the people. Since the invaders had steered clear of Ireland, the monasteries became the source of preserving much of the wisdom and treasures of the Roman Empire and of early Christianity.

Under Pope Gregory in 590 AD, monks were sent as missionaries to Great Britain under the leadership of Augustine (not the bishop of Hippo in the 4th century). The arrived in Kent where they found King Ethelbert married to a Christian wife. Eventually Ethelbert converted, and many of his subjects did likewise. He set apart Canterbury as residence for Augustine who was named Archbishop of Kent, and has remained the ecclesiastical center of England since that time.

In 568, the Lombards who originated in the region of modern Germany and Poland, invaded northern Italy. Since the Byzantine Empire had weakened with the death of Justinian, the papacy decided they must look elsewhere for help in defending Rome. So they allied themselves with the Franks who fended off the Lombards. The alliance later led to Charlemagne being crowned as emperor of the West.

In this sweeping look at what took place in this era there are several things that bear consideration:

1. Conversion seemed to be looked upon as a change of religious alliance or creed and not an inward, sovereign work of the Holy Spirit evidenced by repentance and faith. Many that claimed to be converted continued their immoral and vicious lives. So we see the increase of what Constantine's reign in the 4th century had started - popular conversion to Christianity without genuine work of the Holy Spirit or adherence to the gospel.

2. Politics began to dominate church life. The grab for more power and authority appeared to be more interesting than preaching the gospel and serving the needy. It is not that none of this took place, because it did at points, but from a broader view it seemed that political power and ecclesiastical perks from the reigning government took center stage.

3. The papacy began to rise into a position of governing power. Popes saw that the assurance of their power came when they had the favor of the state. Over time, as the superstitions of the people increased the popes were able to wield power over the state. This set the stage for constant conflict and wars of a religious nature, and a major part for the reigning pope. Much of the influence of the modern papacy still has its roots in this period.

4. Christianity became identified with the power of the Church in the affairs of state - a far cry from the biblical picture of Christ's kingdom "not of this world." The church as salt and light in the world, as Jesus taught, had spiraled down into pomp and power.

 

Two Institutions

Two institutions arose during this era that had bearing on future history: Benedictine Monasticism and the Papacy.

As we noted in earlier studies, monasticism played a big part in the movement of Christianity in the eastern part of the empire and in North Africa. But, as Gonzalez points out, western monasticism differed from its eastern counterpart in three ways:

(1) it tended to be more practical instead of ascetic; rather than punishing the body with severe treatment to master it there was more of a mission thrust. Some of this was legitimate Christian mission that spread the gospel though some was also spreading the "church" and its power.

(2) "Western monasticism did not place the premium on solitude that was typical in the East..." Instead, it "sought ways to organize life in community" instead of going it alone like the hermits of previous generations. (3) Eastern monasticism tended to be embroiled in conflict with church hierarchy so that they usually opposed each other; western monasticism became "the right arm of the popes, bishops and other ecclesiastical leaders" [Gonzalez 238].

The one that changed the posture was Benedict, born around 480 in Italy. He grew up during the period of the Ostrogoths rule in Rome, and witnessed the tensions of Arians and orthodox, along with the persecutions against the Orthodox. He had resolved to take on the life of a hermit when he was about 20, and followed this with extreme asceticism due to attempts to overcome temptations. A group of disciples gathered around him so he sought a suitable place for them and ended up founding the monastery of Monte Cassino. While there he developed his Rule for the community that ended up shaping monasticism for the future. The Rule sought "a wise ordering of the monastic life, with strict discipline, but without undue harshness" [Gonzalez 239]. Instead of bread, salt, and water as the diet of monks like those of the desert, he prescribed two meals a day with fresh fruit and vegetables, and a moderate daily ration of wine. Monks also had their own beds, covers, and pillows. Two key elements to the Rule were vital for Benedict: permanence and obedience. They were committed for life to the monastery and were not free to go elsewhere unless ordered to do so. They were to be obedient to the Rule, and were to obey the abbot who headed the monastery "without delay." Such obedience was to be quick and willingly done. Any deviation brought on admonitions, reprimands, and excommunication if not followed. The Rule called for all to share physical labor, taking turns at the various tasks of the monastery. This established a sense of equity and fairness in the community. The Rule also set out periods of daily prayer and devotions, gathering 8 times a day for prayer, including one in the middle of the night! They also had readings assigned, which meant that much of their time was spent in study. This brought about the need for books so that monks became the chief source of copying books and Bibles, which preserved them for future generations. Many of the Greek Manuscripts that we have today were copied by the monks. The monasteries also served as hostels for travelers, and hospitals and pharmacies for the infirmed. Their work ethic and labor at making their lands productive improved local economies. Once Gregory became pope, he adopted the Benedictine Rule for all monasteries. Monks became, consequently, the arm of the papacy extended into various regions.

 

Papacy

"Pope," like the term "abbot" means "father." Early uses of it were out of respect rather than establishing an ecclesiastic office with absolute authority in the church. The eastern church used the term widely while the west used it for the bishop of Rome.

Though Catholic tradition traces the papacy back to Peter that is far fetched. Even claiming that Clement was Peter's successor - an early church father of great importance - stretches the truth since it seemed that Rome enjoyed plural leadership rather than a single, titular head. The first pope in the way the term is used was Leo "the Great." Admittedly, Leo did great service to Rome from a political standpoint. The Roman government was weak, and when Attila the Hun laid his attack upon them, he marched to meet this "Scourge of God," as they called Attila. He successfully turned Attila away in 452, though it might have been because his army was laid waste by disease. Attila died shortly and ended the Hun invasion.

Leo did not have the same success with the Vandals in 455, as they sacked Rome under Genseric's leadership. Gonzalez explains of Leo, "He was convinced that Jesus had made Peter and his successors the rock on which the church was to be built, and that therefore the bishop of Rome, Peter's direct successor, is the head of the church. Thus, in Leo's writings one finds all the traditional arguments that would repeatedly be mustered in favor of papal authority" (243).

His successors did not enjoy quite the same measure of strength held by Leo, not until much later, that is. Tensions between East and West continued to mount, especially after the Ostrogoths conquered Rome and the West. They were Arians and so put forth their own unorthodox pope. Constantinople insisted on their orthodox pope. Riots took place in Rome as the people fought each other over whose pope was the real pope! A series of synods settled the issue. Once Emperor Justinian came into power he was able to drive out the disunified Ostrogoths through General Belisarius' campaign. But Justinian saw the church as an arm of the state, and any opposition to this met with his wrath. Once he died, the Byzantine strength and power faded, and could no longer be a military presence in Italy. Thus when the Lombards threatened Rome, Pope Pelagius II bought them off to hold them at bay. Finally, since Constantinople would not help, he enlisted the Franks to come to his aid militarily. Thus began the alliance of the papacy and the Franks.

 

Pope Gregory

Pope Gregory followed Pelagius II as pope after serving as a papal ambassador to Constantinople. He and Pelagius had organized health and food efforts in Rome when disease threatened the city. Pelagius actually died during this time and Gregory became the reluctant pope.

There was a vacuum in leadership in Rome at the time due to the pressure put on by the Lombards. Gregory stepped up as the negotiator, acting as the Ruler of Rome and the region that was soon known as "Saint Peter's Patrimony" [Gonzalez 246]. Though he did not claim the same universal authority that Leo claimed earlier, he essentially possessed it by shrewd administrative and visionary work. Among his initiatives were the following that have bearing on the present:

(1) He sent missionaries to Spain and the British Isles that extended Roman authority into those regions through "conversions" of people in authority.

(2) He wrote prolifically, admiring Augustine of Hippo, and evidently wanting to imitate something of his greatness theologically. His admiration for Augustine caused him to make his teaching infallible, including the conjectures of Augustine. Gregory was also greatly influenced by the superstitions of the day, which also intertwined in his teaching.

(3) Concerning the doctrine of salvation he differed greatly with Augustine, abandoning his doctrines of predestination and irresistible grace in favor of his own version of offering satisfaction to God for the sins that one had committed. He called for "penance, which consists of contrition, confession, and the actual punishment or satisfaction. To these must be added priestly absolution, which confirms the forgiveness granted by God. Those who die in the faith and communion of the church, but without having offered satisfaction for all their sins, will go to purgatory before they attain their final salvation. The living can help the dead out of purgatory by offering masses in their favor. Gregory believed that in the mass or communion Christ was sacrificed anew (and there is a legend that the Crucified appeared to him while celebrating mass). This notion of the mass as sacrifice eventually became standard doctrine of the Western church-until it was rejected by Protestants in the sixteenth century" [Gonzalez 247]. His doctrine of purgatory came out of a speculation that Augustine had made in one of his writings that Gregory considered as fact (247).

(4) Gregory readily accepted fanciful and superstitious stories that circulated during that time to confirm the direction that he was carrying Christianity. With the whole climate of that era filled with superstitions and ignorance, he had plenty to go on.

The papacy declined after Gregory with its reclamation over a century later around the middle of the 8th century under Pope Zacharias who deposed one Frank king for another, King Pepin. This sealed the alliance of the Franks, and a generation later the pope crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the West.

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