Summary of Divergent Theories of the Atonement

By Phil Newton

Church history has witnessed many views, at times heatedly, over the meaning of the work of Christ.  Our purpose tonight is to take a general look at some of the influential views, and then aim in the next two weeks to give a fuller explanation of Christ's atoning work.

Basically, "the atonement is objective" (Berkof 373) so it has a basis, an aim that is clear-cut, and a goal to accomplish.

"The atonement was intended to propitiate God and to reconcile Him to the sinner.  This was undoubtedly the primary idea, but does not imply that we can not also speak of the sinner's being reconciled to God" (Romans 5:10; II Corinthians 5:19-20) (Berkhof 373).


Early Theories:

1. Ransom to Satan Theory 

Christ's death paid a ransom to Satan "in order to cancel the just claims which" he had on man (Berkhof 384).  Origen (185-254 AD), theologian in Alexandria and later Caesarea, was the chief advocate.  Views Satan, not God, demanding payment for sin, and thus "neglects the demands of God's justice with respect to sin" (Grudem 581).

 

2. Recapitulation Theory

Popularized by Irenaeus, who though he expressed that the death of Christ was a satisfaction to God, added that Christ reversed the effect of Adam's sin through the various stages of his life.  His Incarnation and human life reversed Adam's course so that Christ began to leaven mankind.  There is an emphasis on ethical transformation because of union with Christ - which is good.  But it basically becomes a balancing scale performance on Christ's part.  He is not viewed as a substitute, but as one who compensates for Adam's disobedience rather than removing it vicariously by His death.

 

3. Anselm's Satisfaction Theory, also called "Commercial Theory" since the whole transaction gives the appearance of a commercial venture. 

Considerations:

(1)   Sometimes this theory is identified with the "satisfaction" taught by the Reformers but Anselm takes a different approach.

(2)   Christ was obligated to obey the law as his duty in being a human.  But no merit is acquired since this was just duty.

(3)   However, his suffering and death in the performance of duty was far above the call to duty.  As one who is sinless, he did not deserve to die; therefore his death "brought infinite glory to God" (Berkhof 385) and constituted an abundance of merit.  Since Christ did not need the merit he has passed it on to sinners in order that they might have forgiveness of sins and an eternal blessedness.  This is known as a work of superogation, i.e., doing works beyond what is expected or above the call of duty so that merit before God is acquired (this is the same teaching of superogation of the saints among Roman Catholics).

Problems:

(1)   "It is not consistent in its representation of the necessity of the atonement.  It ostensibly does not ground this necessity in the justice of God that cannot brook sin, but in the honor of God which calls for amends or reparation" (Berkhof 385).

(2)   It "has no place for the idea that Christ by suffering endured the penalty of sin, and that His suffering was strictly vicarious.  The death of Christ is merely a tribute offered voluntarily to the Father," evidently to give honor to him (Berkhof 386).

(3)   It is one-sided in that it leaves out any sense of justification based on the obedience of Christ to the law.  The whole emphasis is on death and not any significance to the obedient life of Christ fulfilling the law's demands on our behalf.

(4)   This is "merely an external transfer of the merits of Christ to man," (Berkhof 386).  There's no union with Christ by faith or receiving Christ's righteousness by faith.  Seemingly, this is why the theory is called "Commercial Theory," since it is almost like a business transaction.  There is no hint to a legal basis for Christ's obedience and death.

 

4. Abelard's Moral Influence Theory

Abelard (1079-1142) was a French theologian who offered a response in opposition to Anselm.  Many have adopted this theory among liberal groups.  There is no payment for sin in Christ's death, but a demonstration of "how much God loved human beings by identifying with their sufferings, even to the point of death" (Grudem 587).

"The fundamental idea is that there is no principle in the divine nature which necessarily calls for satisfaction on the part of the sinner and that the death of Christ should not be regarded as an expiation for sin.  It was merely a manifestation of the love of God, suffering in and with His sinful creatures, and taking upon Himself their woes and grief.  The suffering did not serve to satisfy the divine nature, but to reveal the divine love, so as to soften human hearts and lead them to repentance.  It assures sinners that there is no obstacle on the part of God which would prevent Him from pardoning their sins.  Not only can He do this without receiving satisfaction, but He is even eager to do it.  The only requirement is that sinners come to Him with penitent hearts" (Berkhof 386).

Objections:

(1)   Contrary to plain teaching of the Word.  The Bible speaks of the necessity of Christ's death, necessity of divine justice, necessity of a penalty for sin, necessity of God being propitiated.  It also shows that sinners cannot be influenced morally until they have received Christ's righteousness by faith.

(2)   The Bible never emphasizes the cross as the supreme act of love, though it is that, but that God's love was manifested due to the reason for the cross:  a substitutionary, penal death.  God was not out to impress man - such an idea is sick! - rather to satisfy His own justice in Christ's death.

(3)   There's no objective reason for the death of Christ in this theory.  He could have done something different to impress men with His love if that was the divine intention.

 

5. The Example Theory or Socinianism

Espoused by the Socinians in the 16th century who opposed the Reformer's doctrine of Christ's vicarious atonement.  Faustus Socinius (1539-1604) was an Italian theologian who settled in Poland and became the founder of Unitarianism due to his denial of Christ's deity.  Boyce (295) calls this "the lowest" and that it "proceeds on the principle that God is pure benevolence, that vindictive justice is incompatible with his character and that upon mere repentance, God can and will forgive the sinner."

It proposes "no retributive justice in God" that would require Him to punish sin.  Also says that God's justice in no way prevents Him pardoning without satisfaction.  Christ's death neither atoned nor moved God to pardon.  But Christ revealed the way of eternal life through faith and obedience, serving as an example in His life and death, and by inspiring us to go and do likewise.  The only idea of expiation was that Christ's death gave Him the right to bestow eternal life as a reward for His obedience.

Objections:

(1)   A revival of ancient Pelagianism that denies depravity and asserts man's natural ability to save himself; it also includes the idea that "the man Christ was adopted to be the Messianic Son of God on account of His obedience" (Berkhof 387), hence an underlying denial of the doctrine of the Incarnation.

(2)   Unbiblical in teaching Christ "as a mere man of exceptional qualities;" and "in its view of sin, in which the character of sin as guilt, so strongly emphasized by the Word of God;" and in its representation of Christ's death being martyrdom, though the cries of dereliction from the cross dismantle this (Berkhof 388).

(3)   "Fails to account for the salvation of those who lived before the incarnation and of infants."  If the exemplary model was true, then those before Christ and infants have no benefit from Him (Berkhof 388).

(4)   Christ is an example for believers, not unbelievers.  To reverse this is to constitute a salvation by works.

(5)   Does not account for Christ's Great High Priestly office.

 

6. The Governmental Theory

Put forward by Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), a Dutch theologian and jurist.  The major thrust is the maintenance of God's moral government rather than any sense of substitutionary death.  God's law is not an expression of His character, rather arbitrary dictates of His will that He is free to change at His pleasure.  Christ's death served as a satisfaction only in the sense that God was pleased to accept it for the effect it would have of directing men to live under God's government.  It was not a judicial act at the cross.  God does not demand justice for the breaking of His law.  God is pictured as fickle, making threats and then not following through.

Objections:

(1)   Wrong view of the law as arbitrary.  There is nothing eternal in it.  It is "subject to change" (Berkhof 388).  The penalty borne by Christ was not for a satisfaction of justice but as a deterrent for men from future offenses of God's law. 

(2)   Securing the interests of divine government is secondary, while divine satisfaction of justice is primary in Christ' work.  Because justice has been satisfied, the divine government is established ("enemies are footstool for Your feet").

(3)   God is viewed in an unworthy manner, as fickle, even capricious.  So how can He be trusted?

(4)   There's no sense of God being reconciled to the sinner through the execution of the penalty levied due to the law.

(5)   "Fails to explain how the Old Testament saints were saved" (Berkhof 389).

(6)   The idea of influencing depraved minds to live under the divine government falls on its own face.  It begins with not only a false assumption of God and His law, but a false assumption of man.

 

7. Mystical Theory

Various attempts by Schleiermacher, Edward Irving, to teach this.

Similar to moral influence in that the idea of atonement is to influence man and bring about changes; but it differs in that the changes are not primarily ethical in man's conscious life, but "as a deeper change in the subconscious life which is brought about in a mystical way" (Berkhof 389).  The Incarnation was "the divine life entering into the life of humanity, to lift it to the plane of the divine" (389).  So Christ had a human nature with inborn corruption and a predisposition to evil, but the Holy Spirit influenced Him and kept the evil from being manifested in sin.  The result was that Christ "gradually purified human nature, and in His death completely extirpated this original depravity and reunited that nature to God.  He entered the life of mankind as a transforming leaven, and the resulting transformation constitutes His redemption" (389).

Objections:

(1)   Does not account for guilt of man, instead speaks of removing man's pollution but nothing of addressing his guilt or penalty due.  "It knows no justification, and conceives of salvation as consisting in subjective sanctification" (Berkhof 390).

(2)   Views sin as "power of moral evil in the world, which involves no guilt and deserves no punishment" (Berkhof 390).  Does not have a doctrine of "the personal wrath of God against sin" (390).

(3)   "Makes Christ share in the pollution of sin and hereditary depravity, and deduces the necessity of His death from the sinfulness of His own nature" (though not all say this) (390).  So there is no sinless Savior dying in the place of sinners.

(4)   Again, cannot answer the question of salvation prior to Christ.

 

8. The Theory of Vicarious Repentance

Also called the theory of sympathy and identification.  Boyce, "It deems repentance alone to be essential for a sinner's acceptance with God" (297).  It assumes that if man were capable of a perfect repentance, then his repentance would be sufficient to atone for his sin.  But man was incapable of this so Christ completed the required perfect repentance vicariously.  Thus, having fulfilled the necessary conditions of repentance and accompanying vicarious confession of sin, sin is atoned for.  Further, by suffering and death, Christ, "entered sympathetically into the Father's condemnation of sin," having "brought out the heinousness of sin and condemned sin" (390).  The Father thus accepted this as perfect confession of sins.  This consequently is to motivate man to holiness.

Objections:

(1)   While Christ does sympathize with us in our weaknesses, His nature was never morally corrupted or affected by sin.  So His sympathy was not with respect to our sins in a moral sense.

(2)   Biblical emphasis is not on Christ's sympathy (except to encourage us in prayer) but on the divine justice and His vicarious death after fulfilling the law's demands.  Denies the effect of Christ's vicarious death and places emphasis on vicarious confession and repentance.

(3)   Fatal flaw is that it implies "that sin does not necessarily make men liable to punishment; that the justice and holiness of God did not, as a matter of course, call for an objective atonement; and that the only necessity for redemptive help followed from the inability of man to repent in true fashion" (391).

(4)   Vicarious confession and repentance is contradictory since both imply a personal, subjective act in light of the sinner's consciousness of his sin and God's holiness.

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